lisnguistic

A. LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTIC

Language is a means of communication. Everyone needs language as media to communicate everything they intend to the others. The study of language is called linguistic. Linguistic by itself can be differed into some types as follows:
a. General linguistic
It is also called theoretical linguistic, because we just discuss about theories in life. This is the study of our daily language.
b. Descriptive linguistic
We just describe how people use language. In this case we do not determine the value of language. So it is not important to judge whether the language is good or bad.
e.g.: We do not have nothing
This is wrong, but it is common in western discourse. Our task is just to determine the value of the sentence
c. Comparative linguistic
It is the branch of historical linguistic that is concerned with comparing languages to establish their historical reladness.
d. Historical linguistic
This study learns about the development of language from the beginning. It is divided into two classes:
Synchronic linguistic : The study of language at present
Diachronic linguistic : The study of language at past (time by time)
e. Applied linguistic
It is the application of linguistic in certain situation or subject
e.g.: Psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic
Some characteristic of linguistic:
a. Linguistic is scientific
Linguistic is everything about language. Language has system and practice. There are many theories about it and it can be proved well.
b. Linguistic is descriptive
Language has variety of characteristic, rule, system, condition etc. it makes the study of language can be described in a certain point.
Language by itself also has its own characteristics, they are:
a. Language is sound
b. Language is linear
c. Language is systematic
d. Language is system of system
e. Language is meaningful
f. Language is arbitrary
g. Language is conventional
h. Language is system of contrast
i. Language is creative
j. Language is unique


B. ENGLISH CONSONAT

English consonant and vowel has a tight relation about the study of the characteristic of speech sound which is called phonetic. It will talk about how the sound is produced so that it can be classified into vowel and consonant. We will focus the phonetic on articulacy or it is defined as articulatory phonetic which is divided into :
a. Voiceless
It will occur when the vocal cord are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.
b. Voiced
It will occur when the vocal cord are drawn together, the air pushes them apart so that it creates vibration.
Place of articulation
a. Bilabial
The sounds are formed by both lips. E.g.: [p] which voiceless and [b],[m] which are voiced
b. Labiodentals
The sounds are formed by upper teeth and lower lip. The sounds are: [f] is voiceless and [v] is voiced
c. Dentals
The sounds are formed by tongue tip behind the upper front teeth. The sounds are: [0]is voiceless and [õ] is voiced
d. Alveolars
The sounds are formed by the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge which is immediately behind the upper teeth. The sounds are: [d][z][n] are voiced and [t][s] are voiceless.
e. Alveo –palatals
The sounds are formed by the tongue which is placed at the front of the palate, near alveolar ridge. [š] is voiced and [ĉ] is voiceless.
f. Velars
The sounds are formed with the back tongue against the velum are called velars. [k] is voiceless and [g] is voiceless.
g. Glottals
The sounds are formed without the active use of the tongue and other parts of the mouth. The sound is [h]


C. ENGLISH VOWEL

While the consonant sounds are mostly articulated through obstruction of vocal tract, vowel sounds are produced with a relatively free flow of air.
Front central back
High i
u
I U
Mid e ә o
έ
Low ^
ǽ a

On the vowel chart, vowel sound between original English dialect and English dialect from other countries are different. The original English dialect is the most appropriate vowel according to the chart.
Diphthong. It is the combination of vowel. In each case, they begin with a vowel sound and end with a glide


D. ENGLISH STRESS AND INTONATION

In linguistics, intonation is variation of pitch while speaking which is not used to distinguish words. (Compare tone.) Intonation and stress are two main elements of linguistic prosody . (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress)
In some countries, intonation and stress ( also pitch ) is the important thing influencing a word, because if there are two similar words having different intonation and stress there will also be different meaning. It happens , for example, in China.
We can identify intonation into three class:
a. Rising Intonation means the pitch of the voice increases over time [↗]
For example : when someone is angry, happy or asking certain question to others
b. Falling Intonation means that the pitch decreases with time [↘]
For example : When someone is sad
c. Sustained intonation means that the pitch is flat
For example : When there is an utterance has been finished yet


E. MORPHEME
It is the smallest meaningful unit having grammatical function. For example, the word recall absolutely has two morphemes. The first is re- and the other is call. Morphemes are generally short sequences of phonemes. These sequences are recurrent, but not all recurrent sequences are morphemes. It means that all morphemes have phonemes. But many phonemes do not always form morpheme. For example : she can finish it in fifteen days. We have phonemes between in and fifteen. Those morphemes similar phonemes /in/ and /een/. But if we combine those phonemes it can’t be a morpheme.
Morpheme is divided into two distinctions. There are free morpheme and bound morpheme. Free morpheme is a morpheme which is able to stand by itself as a single word. It has a meaning as a word .E.g.: call, possible, polite, send etc. Bound morpheme, however, is a morpheme which is not able to stand by itself. It does not have a meaning as a single word. E.g.: re-, im-, -ed etc.



F. IDENTIFICATION OF MORPHEME
The identification of morphemes is done almost wholly by variations and refinements of one basic technique.


G. CLASSING ALLOMORPH INTO MORPHEME
Allomorph is a particular of morpheme. There are many variation in term of allomorph placement in a morpheme. The use of “s” or “es”, for example; books and boxes. When there is, moreover, a zero allomorph. It happens when there is a singular word having same form as a plural word. For example: Sheep [singular]-> sheep [plural], fish (singular)-> fish (plural). Two elements can be considered as the same morpheme if there are two conditions such as [1] they have some common range of meaning, [2] they are in complementary distribution conditioned by some phonological feature.
Complementary distribution : Each (the two elements) occurs in environments in which the other never occurs – that is if there are no environments in which both occur. One way to make simple statements of variations within a series of morphemes is to select on allomorph of each morpheme as a base form.




H. OUTLINE OF ENGLISH MORPHOLOGY

morphology is the identification, analysis and description of the structure of morphemes and other units of meaning in a language like words, affixes, and parts of speech and intonation/stress, implied context (words in a lexicon are the subject matter of lexicology). Morphological typology represents a way of classifying languages according to the ways by which morphemes are used in a language —from the analytic that use only isolated morphemes, through the agglutinative ("stuck-together") and fusional languages that use bound morphemes (affixes), up to the polysynthetic, which compress lots of separate morphemes into single words.


I. INFLECTION
Inflection is the process of adding inflectional morphemes to a word, which may indicate grammatical information.
For example : I am looking at the man wearing blue jacket [present continues]
I was looking at the man wearing blue jacket [past continues]


J. IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS

A constituent is one of two or more grammatical units that enter syntactically or morphologically into a construction at any level
(http://www.ethnologue.com/ll_docs/contents.asp)
It is the technique designed to determine the components in a sentences from the smallest to the largest. It has a tight relation with syntactic structure; structure of modification, predication, complementation and coordination.
Structure of modification is kind of structure focusing on phrase. We have to determine the head and its modifier. Structure of predication is a structure focused on subject and predicate. We have to determine which is the subject and predicate. Structure of complementation is focused on the complement. Whether the predicate is verb or to be. The last is structure of coordination which happens in a compound sentence. We have to determine the coordinate of the sentence.


K. SYNTACTIC DEVICES

It is device that we use to identify syntactic construction, they are:
a. Word order
Some words which are arranged in a good order and have a good meaning is not always have a good grammar. For example “I am easy sleepy”, it has a meaning, but there will be misunderstanding because there is inappropriate grammar. It should be “I get sleepy easily”. In contrast there are also some sentences having good grammar but poor meaning. For example, some bread is eaten by me. The sentence is correct grammatically but it is not common related to meaning. It should be “I eat some bread”.
Word order is about the rule to order some words into a sentence grammatically, so that the sentence has an appropriate meaning and grammar.
b. Function word
Word has little meaning of their own. It constructs grammatical construction.
It is about the classification word ; verb, adjective, adverb, and noun
c. Inflectional affixes
It is the affix adding in a word. The affix will inflect the form of the word but it doesn’t change the meaning or the class of the word.
For example:
My sister goes to library ever Friday She went to Prambanan last week
d. Derivational contrast
It is about construction derived from the same stem but they belong to different construction. This construction will change the form, meaning and class of the word.
For example:
Adj N adv
Happy Happiness Happily
Sad sadness sadly
e. Supra – segmental feature
This construction contains of; stress, pitch, juncture, and intonation. They influence each other. They can’t stand alone


L. TRANSFORMATION

Helped the girl
Boy the Myrna saw
Problem absolutely will happen to understand the meaning of the sentences above. We nay use IC cutting, but there is also the other way to do that is transformation. In order to accomplish the movement of constituents , we need a rule to move constituents which derive from the phrase structure rules. It is called transformational rule. The sentence above many be changed:
I helped the girl yesterday
Myrna says the boy last night
There are four kinds of transformation:
a. Transformation substitution
For example : did you see Sarah in your party last month?
Did you see her in your party last month?
b. Transformation deletion and addition
Lee was planning to watch Ice Age
Lee was planning to do it
c. Transformation movement/permutation
You turn the lamp on
Do you turn the lamp on?






M. LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR

A good grammar in a sentence always provides a good language. We need grammar to be such kind of rule so that a sentence has regulation to order. There are three type of grammar. The first is mental grammar. It is derived from internal linguistic to recognize appropriate structure in a language. The second is linguistic etiquette. It is the best structure to use in a language. The third is grammar of certain country. Each grammar of each country absolutely has its own character. Different country will have different grammar